DNA and RNA are nucleic acids responsible for the storage and transmission of genetic information.
Enzymes are biological catalysts that speed up chemical reactions in living organisms.
The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all living organisms.
Prokaryotic cells lack a true nucleus and membrane-bound organelles.
Eukaryotic cells have a true nucleus and membrane-bound organelles.
The plasma membrane regulates the movement of substances in and out of the cell.
The nucleus contains the cell’s genetic material and controls its activities.
Mitochondria are the “powerhouses” of the cell, where energy (ATP) is produced through cellular respiration.
The endoplasmic reticulum is involved in protein synthesis and lipid metabolism.
Ribosomes are the sites of protein synthesis in the cell.
The Golgi apparatus processes, packages, and distributes proteins and lipids.
Lysosomes contain enzymes for intracellular digestion and waste removal.
The cytoskeleton provides structural support, helps with cell movement, and plays a role in cell division.
Photosynthesis is the process by which plants convert light energy into chemical energy (glucose).
Cellular respiration is the process by which cells generate ATP by breaking down glucose and other organic molecules.
Diffusion is the movement of particles from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration.
Osmosis is the diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane.
Active transport requires energy and moves particles against their concentration gradient.
Meiosis is a type of cell division that produces four non-identical haploid cells, used in sexual reproduction.
Mitosis is a type of cell division that produces two identical diploid cells, used in growth and repair.
Mendel’s law of segregation states that each individual has two alleles for each trait, and these alleles segregate (separate) during gamete formation.
Mendel’s law of independent assortment states that the alleles of different genes segregate independently of each other during gamete formation.
Homozygous individuals have two identical alleles for a trait, while heterozygous individuals have two different alleles.
The phenotype of an organism is its observable characteristics, while its genotype is its genetic makeup.
Codominance occurs when both alleles in a heterozygote are fully expressed, leading to a combined phenotype.
Incomplete dominance occurs when the heterozygous phenotype is intermediate between the two homozygous phenotypes.
A sex-linked trait is located on the sex chromosomes and is more commonly expressed in one sex.
Genetic mutations are changes in DNA sequences that can lead to altered phenotypes.
Gregor Mendel is known as the “father of modern genetics” for his pioneering work on inheritance in pea plants.
The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is a technique used to amplify specific DNA sequences for analysis.
Gel electrophoresis is a method used to separate DNA fragments based on their size and charge.
Recombinant DNA technology involves combining DNA from different sources to create genetically modified organisms or produce specific products.
Genetic engineering allows scientists to manipulate and modify the DNA of organisms, leading to advancements in medicine, agriculture, and industry.
Cloning is the process of creating genetically identical organisms through asexual reproduction.
Evolution is the process by which species change over time through mechanisms such as natural selection and genetic variation.
Charles Darwin proposed the theory of evolution by natural selection based on observations of finches and other organisms on the Galapagos Islands.
Natural selection is the mechanism by which organisms with advantageous traits are more likely to survive and reproduce, leading to changes in the population over generations.
Fossils are preserved remains of ancient organisms that provide evidence of past life and evolutionary changes.
Homologous structures are anatomical similarities between different species, suggesting a common ancestor.
Analogous structures are structures that serve the same function in different species but have different evolutionary origins.
Vestigial structures are remnants of ancestral traits that have lost their original function.
Speciation is the process by which new species arise from existing ones due to isolation and genetic divergence.
Adaptive radiation is the diversification of a single ancestral species into a variety of ecological niches.
Biotic factors are living components of an ecosystem, while abiotic factors are non-living components.
The biosphere is the part of Earth that supports life, including all living organisms and their environments.
Ecology is the study of interactions between organisms and their environments.
The ecosystem includes all living organisms and their physical and chemical environments.
A community is a group of different species that live and interact in the same area.
A population is a group of individuals of the same species living in the same area.
Biodiversity refers to the variety of life forms in an ecosystem, including species diversity, genetic diversity, and ecosystem diversity.
Keystone species have a disproportionate impact on their environment and play a critical role in maintaining ecosystem stability.
Trophic levels represent different feeding levels in an ecosystem, including producers, consumers, and decomposers.
The energy pyramid represents the flow of energy through trophic levels, with energy decreasing at each level.
The water cycle involves the movement of water through various reservoirs, including oceans, atmosphere, and land.
The carbon cycle involves the movement of carbon dioxide through photosynthesis, respiration, decomposition, and combustion.
The nitrogen cycle involves the conversion of nitrogen gas into forms that can be used by plants and animals through processes like nitrogen fixation and denitrification.
The greenhouse effect is the natural process that warms the Earth’s surface by trapping heat in the atmosphere.
Human activities, such as burning fossil fuels, contribute to an enhanced greenhouse effect, leading to global warming and climate change.
Biotic factors in an ecosystem include living organisms such as plants, animals, fungi, and microorganisms.
Abiotic factors in an ecosystem include non-living components such as temperature, sunlight, water, soil, and air.
Primary succession occurs in areas where no soil is present, such as after a volcanic eruption or glacial retreat.
Secondary succession occurs in areas where soil is already present, such as after a forest fire or abandoned agricultural land.
The law of conservation of energy states that energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transferred or transformed.
The first law of thermodynamics, also known as the law of conservation of energy, states that the total energy of an isolated system remains constant.
The second law of thermodynamics states that energy spontaneously tends to disperse, leading to an increase in entropy.
Entropy is a measure of the disorder or randomness in a system.
The universe tends toward higher entropy and greater disorder over time.
Heat is the transfer of thermal energy from a higher temperature object to a lower temperature object.
Work is done when a force is applied to an object and the object moves in the direction of the force.
The SI unit of energy is the joule, and the SI unit of power is the watt.
Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles in a substance.
Absolute zero is the lowest possible temperature, at which all molecular motion ceases.
Conduction is the transfer of heat through direct contact between particles of a substance.
Convection is the transfer of heat through the movement of fluid (liquid or gas) particles.
Radiation is the transfer of heat through electromagnetic waves, such as infrared radiation.
Heat engines convert thermal energy into mechanical work.
The efficiency of a heat engine is the ratio of the work output to the heat input, expressed as a percentage.
The Carnot efficiency is the maximum possible efficiency of a heat engine operating between two temperature reservoirs.
The coefficient of linear expansion measures how much a material’s length changes with temperature.
The coefficient of volume expansion measures how much a material’s volume changes with temperature.
The first law of thermodynamics, also known as the law of conservation of energy, states that energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transferred or transformed.
The second law of thermodynamics states that energy spontaneously tends to disperse, leading to an increase in entropy.
Entropy is a measure of the disorder or randomness in a system.
The universe tends toward higher entropy and greater disorder over time.
Heat is the transfer of thermal energy from a higher temperature object to a lower temperature object.
Work is done when a force is applied to an object and the object moves in the direction of the force.
The SI unit of energy is the joule, and the SI unit of power is the watt.
Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles in a substance.
Absolute zero is the lowest possible temperature, at which all molecular motion ceases.
Conduction is the transfer of heat through direct contact between particles of a substance.
Convection is the transfer of heat through the movement of fluid (liquid or gas) particles.
Radiation is the transfer of heat through electromagnetic waves, such as infrared radiation.
Heat engines convert thermal energy into mechanical work.
The efficiency of a heat engine is the ratio of the work output to the heat input, expressed as a percentage.
The Carnot efficiency is the maximum possible efficiency of a heat engine operating between two temperature reservoirs.
The coefficient of linear expansion measures how much a material’s length changes with temperature.
The coefficient of volume expansion measures how much a material’s volume changes with temperature.
Sound waves are mechanical waves that require a medium for propagation.
The frequency of a sound wave is the number of vibrations per unit time and is measured in hertz (Hz).
