The wavelength of a sound wave is the distance between two consecutive compressions or rarefactions.
The speed of sound in a medium depends on the properties of the medium, such as its density and elasticity.
The Doppler effect causes a shift in the frequency of a sound wave when the source of the wave is moving relative to an observer.
The Doppler effect is responsible for the change in pitch of sound from a moving source, such as a siren on a moving vehicle.
The pitch of a sound is related to the frequency of the sound wave, with higher frequencies corresponding to higher pitches.
Resonance occurs when an external force matches the natural frequency of an object, leading to increased amplitude of vibrations.
Resonance is used in musical instruments, such as string instruments and wind instruments, to amplify sound.
Ultrasound waves have frequencies higher than the upper limit of human hearing and are used in medical imaging and industrial applications.
Echoes are reflections of sound waves from surfaces that are far enough away to cause a noticeable time delay.
Sonar (sound navigation and ranging) uses sound waves to determine the depth of water and locate objects underwater.
The primary colors of light are red, green, and blue.
Red light has the longest wavelength in the visible spectrum.
White light is a combination of all colors in the visible spectrum.
A concave mirror can produce both real and virtual images, depending on the object’s position.
The primary colors of pigment are cyan, magenta, and yellow.
The colors cyan, magenta, and yellow are subtractive primaries used in color mixing for printing.
The phenomenon of interference can result in the formation of bright and dark fringes.
The colors seen in a thin film interference pattern are due to the difference in the path length traveled by light waves.
The photoelectric effect demonstrates that light can behave as both particles and waves.
The maximum number of electrons in an energy level can be calculated using the formula 2n², where n is the principal quantum level.
The electron configuration of an atom describes the arrangement of its electrons in different energy levels and subshells.
The Pauli exclusion principle states that no two electrons in an atom can have the same set of quantum numbers and must have opposite spins.
The Aufbau principle states that electrons fill atomic orbitals in order of increasing energy.
The valence electrons of an atom are involved in its chemical reactions and bonding.
An exothermic reaction releases energy to its surroundings.
The activation energy of a chemical reaction is the minimum energy required for the reaction to occur.
A catalyst increases the rate of a chemical reaction by lowering the activation energy.
In an exothermic reaction, the products have lower potential energy than the reactants.
An endothermic reaction absorbs heat from its surroundings.
Chemical equilibrium is reached when the rates of the forward and reverse reactions are equal.
Le Chatelier’s principle states that if a system at equilibrium is subjected to a change, it will adjust itself to counteract the change and establish a new equilibrium.
An acid donates protons (H⁺ ions), and a base accepts them.
The pH scale measures the acidity or basicity of a solution.
A pH of 7 is considered neutral, while values below 7 are acidic and values above 7 are basic.
Buffers are solutions that can resist changes in pH when an acid or base is added.
Organic chemistry is the study of compounds containing carbon and hydrogen.
The simplest organic compounds are hydrocarbons, which consist of only carbon and hydrogen.
Isotopes of an element have the same number of protons but a different number of neutrons.
The atomic number of an element is equal to the number of protons in its nucleus.
The mass number of an element is the sum of its protons and neutrons.
The periodic table is organized based on the increasing atomic number of elements.
Elements in the same group or column of the periodic table have similar chemical properties.
The alkali metals are located in Group 1 of the periodic table and are highly reactive.
Halogens are located in Group 17 of the periodic table and are known for their high reactivity with metals.
Noble gases are located in Group 18 of the periodic table and are generally inert due to their stable electron configurations.
The modern periodic table was developed by Henry Moseley and is based on the atomic number of elements.
Covalent bonds involve the sharing of electrons between atoms.
Ionic bonds result from the transfer of electrons from one atom to another.
An atom with a positive or negative charge is called an ion.
The chemical formula of a compound indicates the types and ratio of atoms present in the compound.
The molecular formula gives the actual number of atoms of each element in a molecule.
Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structural arrangements.
A hydrocarbon with a single bond is called an alkane.
A hydrocarbon with one or more double bonds is called an alkene.
A hydrocarbon with one or more triple bonds is called an alkyne.
Structural isomers have the same molecular formula but different structural arrangements.
Optical isomers (enantiomers) are mirror-image stereoisomers that rotate plane-polarized light in opposite directions.
A saturated hydrocarbon contains only single bonds and has the maximum number of hydrogen atoms.
The simplest carbohydrate is a monosaccharide, such as glucose or fructose.
The building blocks of proteins are amino acids.
DNA and RNA are nucleic acids responsible for the storage and transmission of genetic information.
Enzymes are biological catalysts that speed up chemical reactions in living organisms.
The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all living organisms.
Prokaryotic cells lack a true nucleus and membrane-bound organelles.
Eukaryotic cells have a true nucleus and membrane-bound organelles.
The plasma membrane regulates the movement of substances in and out of the cell.
The nucleus contains the cell’s genetic material and controls its activities.
Mitochondria are the “powerhouses” of the cell, where energy (ATP) is produced through cellular respiration.
The endoplasmic reticulum is involved in protein synthesis and lipid metabolism.
Ribosomes are the sites of protein synthesis in the cell.
The Golgi apparatus processes, packages, and distributes proteins and lipids.
Lysosomes contain enzymes for intracellular digestion and waste removal.
The cytoskeleton provides structural support, helps with cell movement, and plays a role in cell division.
Photosynthesis is the process by which plants convert light energy into chemical energy (glucose).
Cellular respiration is the process by which cells generate ATP by breaking down glucose and other organic molecules.
Diffusion is the movement of particles from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration.
Osmosis is the diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane.
Active transport requires energy and moves particles against their concentration gradient.
Meiosis is a type of cell division that produces four non-identical haploid cells, used in sexual reproduction.
Mitosis is a type of cell division that produces two identical diploid cells, used in growth and repair.
Mendel’s law of segregation states that each individual has two alleles for each trait, and these alleles segregate (separate) during gamete formation.
Mendel’s law of independent assortment states that the alleles of different genes segregate independently of each other during gamete formation.
Homozygous individuals have two identical alleles for a trait, while heterozygous individuals have two different alleles.
The phenotype of an organism is its observable characteristics, while its genotype is its genetic makeup.
Codominance occurs when both alleles in a heterozygote are fully expressed, leading to a combined phenotype.
Incomplete dominance occurs when the heterozygous phenotype is intermediate between the two homozygous phenotypes.
A sex-linked trait is located on the sex chromosomes and is more commonly expressed in one sex.
Genetic mutations are changes in DNA sequences that can lead to altered phenotypes.
Gregor Mendel is known as the “father of modern genetics” for his pioneering work on inheritance in pea plants.
The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is a technique used to amplify specific DNA sequences for analysis.
Gel electrophoresis is a method used to separate DNA fragments based on their size and charge.
Recombinant DNA technology involves combining DNA from different sources to create genetically modified organisms or produce specific products.
Genetic engineering allows scientists to manipulate and modify the DNA of organisms, leading to advancements in medicine, agriculture, and industry.
Cloning is the process of creating genetically identical organisms through asexual reproduction.
Evolution is the process by which species change over time through mechanisms such as natural selection and genetic variation.
Charles Darwin proposed the theory of evolution by natural selection based on observations of finches and other organisms on the Galapagos Islands.
Natural selection is the mechanism by which organisms with advantageous traits are more likely to survive and reproduce, leading to changes in the population over generations.
Fossils are preserved remains of ancient organisms that provide evidence of past life and evolutionary changes.
Homologous structures are anatomical similarities between different species, suggesting a common ancestor.
Analogous structures are structures that serve the same function in different species but have different evolutionary origins.
